I-Sem (Old English)

 

I Semester, Figures of Speech (English literature)

 

Figures of Speech:

 

A word or Phrase used in a non literal sense for Rhetorical or Vivid effect

 

1.Simile

 

It is a type of Figurative language that defines something by comparing it to something else with words ‘like’ or ‘as’

 

Examples:

 

i)These two are different as night and day

ii)The mouse is as dead as a doormat

iii) You sing like an Angel

 

Similes can make writing more colourful and interesting. They are often used in Literature.

 

Example:

 

i)I wandered lonely like a cloud

That floats on high o’er vales and hills.

(Daffodils by William Wordsworth)

 

ii) What happens to a dream deferred:

Does it dry up

Like a raisin in the sun!

Or fester like a sore

And then run

(By Langston Hughes)

 

Sometimes similes make use of exaggeration.

 

Example: He runs as fast as lightening

 

2. Metaphor

 

A Metaphor is a figurative speech that is used to make a comparison, but in a way different from a Simile (In Metaphors, words ‘like’ or ‘as’ are not used in comparisons)

 

A metaphor directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas.

 

Example:

 All the world’s a stage.

(by William Shakespeare in the play ‘As you like it’)

 

Aristotle in his work ‘The Rhetoric’ states metaphor makes learning pleasant.

 

The term metaphor was added into English from the 16^th Century old French Word ‘Metaphore’, which came from a Latin Word ‘Metaphora’. It means carrying over and in turn , it conveys the meaning ‘transference’.

 

Examples:

i)Memories are bullets, some whiz by and only spook you, others, tear you upon and leave in pieces.

(by Rudyard Kipling in “kill the dead”)

 

ii)Two roads diverged

in a wood, and I took the one

less travelled by and that has made

all the difference

(by Robert frost in “The Road not taken”)

 

iii) Her eyes were Diamond

 

iv)The snow is a white blanket.

 

 3. Oxymoron

 

An Oxymoron is a figure of speech that combines contradictory words with opposing meanings like

 

-Old News

-Deafening Silence

-organised Chaos

 

Oxymoron is also called a literary device that juxtaposes contradictory items. They are often used poetically as a way of bringing out a fresh meaning in a word or phrase. In fact, the oxymoron is an ancient Greek Word.

 

Some Oxymorons have become common expressions in Modern day English.

 

Examples:

 

i.Awfully Good

ii.Bitter Sweet

iii.Only Option

iv.Original Copy

v.Seriously Funny

 

Sometimes, Oxymorons are used to create dramatic effect. They elicit critical thinking and make readers think. They present the ideas or opportunities in a clever or funny manner.

 

Example:

 

i.I am deeply Superficial person (by Andy warlot)

 

usage of Oxymorons in Literature to elicit critical thinking and to convey deeper meaning

 

Examples:

 

i.Parting is such sweet sorrow (by Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet)

ii.A damned sain, an Honourable villain

(by Shakespeare in the drama”Romeo and Juliet”)

iii) His honour rooted in dishonor stood. And faith unfaithful kept him falsely true.

(Alfred Tennyson in Idylls of the King)

 

4.Euphmism

 

Euphemism is a figure of Speech, in which a word or Phrase is used to avoid saying any unpleasant or offensive word.

Example:

 i)Senior Citizen

Senior citizen is a Euhemism for ‘old person’

 

ii)left to pursue other interests

(the above phrase is used as an Euphemistic word for giving a meaning called ‘fired’.)

The Word Euphemism was added into English from a greek word ‘Euphemia’. Euphemia means words of good omen. The Euphemia is divided into two parts. The are ‘Eu’ and ‘pheme’

 ‘Eu’ means good or well and ‘pheme’ means prophetic speech or rumourous talk. Greks referred words of praise and positivit, etc to a female greek Spirit called ‘Eupheme’.

 Ancient people used euphemism to keep a holy silence, which means speaking well by not speaking at all.

 The following Euphemistic words are used in the day to day communication to make unpleasant or offensive words into decent and pleasant ones.

 Example:

 i)’well off’ to indicate rich

ii) ‘between job’ means un employed

iii)’Differently abled’ indicates physical, mental and psychological abilities.

iv)’Not the sharpest pencil in the box” to indicate the quality of being stupid

v)’Departed’ means dead

vi)Enhanced interrogation’ to describe torture.

vii)’Coloured people’ means Negros

viii)’African American’ to indicate Black people.

 

5.Metonymy:

 

It is a figure of Speech in which a concept (an idea) is referred to by the name of something closely associated with a thing or concept.

The Word ‘Metonymy’ has come into English from a Greek Word named ‘Metonymis’. It means change of name.

 In metonymy, there is Containment. In the sense, when one thing contains another.

 Example:

i)Dish – it is used to refer not to a plate but to the food it contains.

ii)White House or Pentagon – it is used to refer to the administration of the United States or the U.S. Department of Defence, respectively

 Sometimes, in Metonymy, a Physical item, place or body part is used to refer to related concepts such as

 i)The Bench – for the judiciary profession

ii) Stomach/Belly – for appetite or hunger

iii)Mouth – speech

iv)Hand – for someone’s responsibility for something

v)Nose – for concern about someone else’s affairs.

 In Metonymy a tool or instrument is used to signify the Job it does, or the Person who does the Job.

 Example:

 i)The press – Printing Press

ii)Rolodex – Referred to an instrument which keeps the contact of Business people.

 Metonymy is also used to refer a place of Government or other official institution.

 Example:

 i)Brussels – Institution of The European union

ii)The Hague – he International Court of Justice

iii)Wall Street – can Stand for the entire U.S. Financial and Corporate banking Sector.

 (Difference between Metonymy an metaphor)

 Metaphor draws similarities between two things. It substitutes a concept with another.

 Ex : he is a tiger in the Class (metaphor)

Metonymy draws contiguity between two things. It selects a related term and is used for association.

Ex: the tiger called his students to the meeting now. (Metonymy)

 Usage of Metonymy: it is used to express any idea creatively. It makes single words or phrases more powerful.

 

 6.Hyperbole:

 

It is an exaggerated statement or claims not meant to be taken literally. Within Hyperbole, There is exaggeration or overstatement. It is also a rhetorical device or a part of Figure of Speech.

In rhetoric, it is also sometimes known as Auxerix, Which means growth literally. In rhetoric, Auxesix refers to varying forms of increase.

 The Word Hyperbole has come into English from Greek through Latin. ‘Hyper’ means above or beyond and ‘balla’ means throw.

 Examples:

 i)the bag weighed a ton (which means extremely heavy)

ii)She has a thousand miss calls (which means many miss calls)

iii)I was so embarrassed. I wanted to Die. ( it means I felt heavily ashamed)

 Sometimes, an impossible form of Hyperbole happens. It is called ‘Adnation’

 Adynation is also called a figure of speech in the form of Hyperbole. It takes to such extreme lengths as to insinuate a complete impossible.

 Ex: i)When Pigs fly ( it means, it will never happen)

ii)Sooner Cactus grows on my Palm ( it means, it will never happen)

 

7.paradox:

 It is a figure of Speech in which a statement appears to contradict itself. This type of statement can be described as paradoxical.

 The term ‘Paradox’ comes from the Greek word ‘Paradoxa’, which means incredible, Contrary to opinion or expectation.

 Paradoxes can have a Positive or negative cannotattions. They can be used in writing or speech, and can be used individually or within a set of paradoxes.

 Example:

i) Some of the biggest failures I ever had were success.

ii) If you wish to preserve your secret, wrap it up in frankness.

iii) War is peace, freedom is slavery and Ignorance is strength.

 A Compressed Paradox comprises of just a few words. It is called an oxymoron. In oxymoron, there are just two words, whereas in Paradox there are more than two words and they are expressed in different ways.

Example:

i) Sweet sorrow (Oxymoron)

ii) Parting is such sweet sorrow….. (Paradox taken from William Shakespeare’s Romeo & Juliet)

Paradoxes are used to highlight the complexities of a certain situation. They point out challenges or satirize contradictions in the World. They also add humour to a work by making a witty statement.

 

8.Synedoche:

It is a type of Metonymy, in which a term for a part of something is used to refer the whole or vice versa. Synecdoche is also considered as a part of figure of Speech.

Example:

 i)Suits for Businessmen

ii)Wheels for Automobile

iii)Boots for soldiers

 Synecdoche is often used as a type of Personification by attaching a human aspect to a non human thing. It is used in reference to political relations.

 The two main types of synecdoche are microcosm and Macrocosm.

 Generally, a microcosm uses a part of something to refer to anything entirely.

 Example:

I need a hand to complete the Project.

(Which means a Person is required to complete the Project)

A Macrocosm is the opposite. It is used to refer to the name of an huge structure to a small part.

 Example:

‘The world’

 (Refers to a certain country or part of a planet)

 usage of Synecdoche in Politics.

 i)The White House – Executive office of the President of the U.S

ii) Buckingham palace – Crown of the U.K

 Part referring to a whole

 i)Grey beard – Old man

ii) Wheels - Vehicles

iii) Cement for concrete

iv) Vaseline for perfumed Jelly

v) Coke for a Variety of Cola.

 

9) Irony

 Irony is a rhetorical device that is used to express an intended meaning by using language that the opposite is understood when taken literally.

 There are three types of irony. They are

 i) Dramatic irony

ii) Situational irony

iii) Verbal irony.

i)Dramatic Irony

It is a type of irony, in which one or more characters in a story or a play is given no idea of a very important piece of information that would alter the lives and also change the course of the plot completely.

 In simple terms, when Dramatic irony is employed, the audience know something that characters have not yet found out or understood.

 William Shakespeare is known widely for the use of Dramatic irony. He used them exceptionally in most of his tragic plays.

 Along with Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Jane Austen, Jonathan Swift and Thomas Hardy, etc made use of Dramatic Irony in their writings in an effective manner.

 Example:

i) He was a Gentleman on whom I built an absolute trust. (This example is related to Dramatic irony. In the Drama Macbeth, King Duncan expressed trust over Macbeth who would kill him later)

 Situational irony

 It is a kind of irony, in which the events in the story or Play gives the readers a result that is different from what they had been expecting to Occur.

 Writers like O.Henry, Kate Chopin, Christopher Marlowe, Jane Austen, William Shakespeare, etc used situational irony in a skillful manner in their writings.

 Example:

Water, Water, Everywhere,

Not any drop to drink….

(S.T. Coleridge in the Poem’ The Rime of the Ancient mariner’

Verbal Irony

 In Verbal irony, Author puts the Characters lines in such a way that the intended meaning is the exact opposite of what is being said.

Unlike the other two types of irony, in verbal irony, the Characters know the truth but uses Irony intentionally in a sarcastic manner to reveal the hidden truth.

Writers like Jonathan Swift, William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, S.T.Coleridge, Edgar Allan Poe, G.B.Shaw, etc used irony in their writings exceptionally.

 Example:

i)I thrice presented him a Kingly Crown,

which he did thrice refuse:

Was this ambition;

Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;

And, sure, he is an honourable man.

 (Antony’s Speech about Brutus being an honourable man in the play ‘Julius Caesar’)

 Irony is used in the writings or speeches, etc, to drag the attention of the readers or audiences. It is used to indicate a noticeable change in the character or plot. It depicts the variance between what is happening, how everything at the moment occurs and what had been expected of characters or the Plot.

 Irony is used to introduce Sarcasm also.

 10)Personification

 It is a figure of speech that is used to attribute human characteristics to something that is not human. It can also be used to personify an Abstract idea.

 Usage of personification in Literature:

i) Because I could not stop for Death,

He kindly stopped for me …

The carriage held but just ourselves…

And Immortality

(Emily Dickenson in her Poem ‘I could not stop for Death’)

 ii)i Am silver and exact.

I have no pre conceptions

Whatever I see I swallow

Immediately just as it is, unmisted by

Love or dislike

I am not cruel, only thoughtful.

 (Sylvia Plath in the Poem ‘Mirror’ personified the Mirror as if it was giving a Monologue)

Personification in everyday usage

 i) The Sun kissed me while I was clicking a picture.

ii) The flowers danced to the wind

iii) The Stars were sparkling and winking at all of us.